Restrictions on freedom of association and collective bargaining are systemic risks for seafarers, and they undermine the protection of all other labour rights at sea. Despite being fundamental rights under ILO Conventions 87 and 98 and reinforced by the Maritime Labour Convention – these rights are weakened by the global, mobile and highly fragmented nature of the shipping industry.
The widespread use of FOCs creates regulatory gaps that shipowners can use to undermine labour protections, including trade union rights. Seafarers are employed under jurisdictions that do not effectively protect freedom of association, limiting their ability to organise, join unions or bargain collectively. In severe cases, seafarers face direct anti-union practices, including intimidation, blacklisting – the illegal practice of using lists to prevent seafarers gaining future employment – dismissal and refusal of future contracts if they approach or engage with unions to raise concerns.
Isolation further exacerbates these risks. Seafarers have limited access to trade union representatives, communication channels and to independent support, which makes organising or reporting violations difficult. Onboard hierarchies and dependency on employers for their next contract deter seafarers from exercising rights they hold.
Migrant seafarers are particularly vulnerable, as their employment and immigration status can be used to discourage union activity. Without effective collective bargaining, oversight of wages, working conditions and safety standards weakens – allowing abuses such as wage theft, excessive working hours and unsafe conditions to persist undetected.
Freedom of association is an enabling right: its denial makes broader human rights violations across maritime supply chains substantially more likely. ITF Agreements are the only internationally recognised system of collective bargaining on FOC ships, and they give companies structured, enforceable oversight of the vessels carrying their goods — through worker representation and established industrial relations mechanisms.
For more on freedom of association and collective bargaining, forced labour and human trafficking and discrimination, see the Risks Across Transport guidance.